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Advance Educational Research, M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Unit 6 Research in Education

Characteristics of Scientific Method

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The scientific method is a systematic approach used by scientists to investigate natural phenomena, establish relationships between variables, and test hypotheses.

The scientific method is characterized by several key features that distinguish it from other methods of inquiry. These features include:

  1. Empirical: The scientific method relies on empirical evidence obtained through direct observation or experimentation.
  2. Systematic: The scientific method involves a systematic and structured approach to investigation, with clearly defined steps and procedures.
  3. Objective: The scientific method strives to be objective and unbiased, with researchers attempting to eliminate personal bias and subjective interpretation from their investigations.
  4. Testable: The scientific method focuses on testable hypotheses that can be subjected to empirical scrutiny.
  5. Replicable: Scientific findings are expected to be replicable by other researchers, with consistent results obtained through repeated experimentation.
  6. Cumulative: The scientific method is cumulative, with new discoveries building on previous research and knowledge.
  7. Tentative: Scientific conclusions are always tentative, subject to modification or revision based on new evidence or analysis.
  8. Creative: The scientific method encourages creativity and innovation, with researchers encouraged to develop novel hypotheses and approaches to investigation.
  9. Precision: The scientific method requires precise measurement and accurate description of phenomena. Scientists strive to minimize errors and uncertainties in their observations and experiments.
  10. Falsifiability: Scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable, meaning they can be tested and potentially proven false by empirical evidence. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, it is not considered scientific.
  11. Parsimony: The scientific method favors the simplest explanation that can account for the observed data. This is known as the principle of parsimony or Occam’s Razor, which suggests that explanations that require fewer assumptions or entities are more likely to be true.

Also Read : Meaning of Educational Research

Characteristics of Scientific Method
Characteristics of Scientific Method

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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, Gender, School & Society, M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Psychology of Learning and Development, Theories of Learning, Unit 3 Learner and Learning Process

Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory

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Albert Bandura social learning theory is a psychological theory that emphasizes the importance of observational learning, modeling, and imitation in shaping behavior. According to this theory, people learn through observing the behavior of others, and they can use this information to guide their actions.

Bandura’s theory proposes that learning can occur through three key processes: observational learning, reinforcement, and cognitive processes.

  • Observational learning refers to learning that occurs by observing the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that people can learn new behaviors and skills by watching others and imitating their actions. This process is particularly important in social contexts, where individuals can learn appropriate behaviors and social norms by observing and imitating others.
  • Reinforcement refers to the consequences that follow a behavior, which can either increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Bandura suggested that reinforcement is an important part of the learning process, and that people are more likely to repeat behaviors that are reinforced, while behaviors that are punished or ignored are less likely to be repeated.
  • Cognitive processes refer to the mental processes that are involved in learning, such as attention, memory, and motivation. Bandura suggested that people’s thoughts, beliefs, and expectations can influence their behavior, and that these cognitive processes can be shaped by the environment.

The principles of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory can be summarized as follows:

  1. Learning occurs through observation and imitation: According to Bandura, people can learn new behaviors and skills by observing the behavior of others and imitating them.
  2. Reinforcement is an important part of the learning process: People are more likely to repeat behaviors that are reinforced, while behaviors that are punished or ignored are less likely to be repeated.
  3. Cognitive processes are involved in learning: People’s thoughts, beliefs, and expectations can influence their behavior, and these cognitive processes can be shaped by the environment.
  4. Behavior is influenced by social context: Social factors such as social norms, cultural values, and peer pressure can all play a role in shaping behavior.
  5. Modeling and imitation are important in behavior change: Observing others who are successful in making behavior changes can be a powerful motivator for individuals to make similar changes themselves.
  6. Self-efficacy is a key component of behavior change: Bandura suggested that people’s beliefs about their own ability to successfully perform a behavior are a key determinant of whether they will actually engage in that behavior.

Overall, Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes the importance of social context in shaping behavior, and highlights the role of observation, modeling, and reinforcement in the learning process. This theory has been applied in a wide range of areas, including education, psychology, and social policy, and has helped to shed light on how people learn new behaviors and skills, and how these behaviors can be modified and changed over time.

Also Read : Wechsler Intelligence Test

Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory

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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Psychology of Learning and Development, Theories of Learning, Unit 3 Learner and Learning Process

Kurt Lewin Field Theory

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Kurt Lewin field theory is a psychological theory that describes behavior as a result of the interactions between a person’s internal psychological state and the external environment. According to this theory, behavior is influenced by the person’s psychological needs, attitudes, values, and goals as well as the social and physical environment they are in.

The theory is based on the idea that a person’s behavior is the result of two main factors: the person’s internal psychological state (such as their needs, values, and attitudes) and the external environment they are in (such as social norms, physical surroundings, and cultural influences). These factors interact with each other in complex ways, and behavior is the outcome of these interactions.

Lewin proposed that a person’s psychological state can be thought of as a “field” of forces that interact with the environment. This field is made up of both driving and restraining forces, and the behavior of the person will depend on the balance between these forces. Driving forces are those that push a person towards a particular behavior, while restraining forces are those that inhibit or discourage that behavior.

For example, if a person is trying to quit smoking, the driving forces might include their desire to be healthier and live longer, while the restraining forces might include their addiction to nicotine and the social pressure from friends who also smoke. The person’s behavior will depend on the balance between these driving and restraining forces.

Lewin’s field theory has been influential in many areas of psychology, including social psychology, organizational psychology, and developmental psychology. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the complex interactions between internal psychological factors and external environmental factors in determining behavior.

Kurt Lewin Field Theory

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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Psychology of Learning and Development, Theories of Learning, Unit 3 Learner and Learning Process

Wechsler Intelligence Test

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The Wechsler Intelligence Test, also known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), is a widely used standardized intelligence test developed by American psychologist David Wechsler in the mid-20th century. The test is designed to measure a person’s cognitive abilities in various areas, such as verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Administration of Wechsler Test :

  • The Wechsler Intelligence Test is administered individually and consists of a series of subtests that assess different aspects of cognitive functioning.
  • The subtests include tasks such as vocabulary, digit span (which measures working memory), similarities (which measures verbal reasoning), block design (which measures spatial reasoning), and coding (which measures processing speed), among others.
  • The test is designed to provide an overall intelligence quotient (IQ) score, as well as scores in specific areas of cognitive functioning.
  • It is available in several versions, including the WAIS, which is designed for adults aged 16 to 90, and the WISC, which is designed for children aged 6 to 16.
  • There are also versions of the test for preschool children (the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) and for individuals with intellectual disabilities (the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV for individuals with intellectual disabilities).

This test is widely used in educational and clinical settings to assess cognitive functioning and identify individuals who may benefit from special education services or other interventions. It is also used in research to investigate the relationship between cognitive abilities and other factors, such as academic achievement, job performance, and mental health. The test is recognized as one of the most reliable and valid measures of cognitive functioning and is a widely used tool in the field of psychology.

The Wechsler Intelligence Test is a standardized test, meaning that it has been carefully developed and validated to ensure that it is fair, reliable, and accurate. Standardization is achieved by administering the test to a large and diverse sample of individuals and then comparing the results to establish norms and standards for the test. This process ensures that the test is administered and scored consistently and accurately across different individuals and settings.

Also Read : Spearman two factor theory of Intelligence

Wechsler Intelligence Test
Wechsler Intelligence Test

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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Psychology of Learning and Development, Theories of Learning, Unit 3 Learner and Learning Process

Binet -Simon intelligence test

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The Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, also known as the Binet Test, was developed by French psychologists Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in the early 20th century. The purpose of the test was to identify children who were at risk of struggling in school and who might benefit from special education services. The Binet Test was the first widely used standardized intelligence test, and it paved the way for the development of intelligence testing as we know it today.

Components of Binet Simon Intelligence Test

The Binet Test consists of a series of tasks and questions that measure a child’s ability to perform cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and comprehension. The test is designed to measure a child’s mental age, which is the age at which a child is performing intellectually, relative to their actual chronological age. For example, a child who is 8 years old but performs at the level of a typical 10-year-old would have a mental age of 10.

The Binet Test includes a range of tasks that assess a child’s ability to reason, understand language, solve problems, and remember information. The tasks become progressively more difficult as the child progresses through the test. The original Binet Test included tasks such as naming objects, repeating sentences, solving arithmetic problems, and understanding analogies. The test was revised several times throughout the early 20th century, with each revision improving the test’s validity and reliability.

The most famous revision of the Binet Test was the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, developed by Lewis Terman in the United States in 1916. The Stanford-Binet test expanded the age range of the test to include adults and included additional tasks and questions that assessed a wider range of abilities. The test included tasks such as vocabulary, comprehension, quantitative reasoning, and nonverbal reasoning.

Today, the Binet Test is no longer widely used in its original form, as there are newer and more comprehensive intelligence tests available. However, the Binet Test paved the way for the development of standardized intelligence testing and continues to be influential in the field of psychology. The test has been used to identify children who might benefit from special education services and to assess intellectual disability, among other applications.

Also Read : Spearman two factor theory

Binet Simon Intelligence Test

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