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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Psychology of Learning and Development, Unit 3 Learner and Learning Process

Freud Stages of Psycho-sexual Development

21 April 2023 Harshita Jain 4 Comments

Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is a theory that proposes that human development occurs in a series of stages, each of which is characterized by a particular conflict or crisis related to the expression of sexual and aggressive drives. According to Freud, the resolution of these conflicts determines the individual’s psychological and emotional health in adulthood.

The five stages of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development are:

Oral Stage (birth to 18 months): In this stage, the infant’s primary source of pleasure and satisfaction comes from oral activities such as sucking, biting, and chewing. The main conflict in this stage is weaning, or the transition from breast or bottle feeding to solid foods.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years): In this stage, the child’s focus shifts to the anal region and the elimination of waste. The main conflict in this stage is toilet training, which can lead to conflicts over issues of control and autonomy.
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years): In this stage, the child becomes more aware of their own gender identity and develops a strong attachment to the opposite-sex parent. This is known as the Oedipus complex for boys, and the Electra complex for girls.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty): In this stage, the child’s sexual and aggressive drives are largely dormant, and they focus on developing social and intellectual skills.
Genital Stage (puberty to adulthood): In this stage, the individual’s sexual and aggressive drives are reactivated, and they seek out sexual relationships and intimate connections with others.

Freud believed that if a child experiences difficulties during any of these stages, it can lead to psychological and emotional problems in adulthood. For example, unresolved conflicts during the anal stage may lead to issues related to control, perfectionism, or messiness later in life. However, it’s important to note that Freud’s theory of psychosexual development is controversial and has been subject to criticism and debate in the field of psychology.

Gordon Allport’s Trait theory

20 April 2023 Harshita Jain 7 Comments

Gordon Allport’s trait theory is a comprehensive theory of personality that emphasizes the uniqueness of individuals and the importance of understanding each person’s unique set of traits. Allport believed that each person possesses a unique combination of traits that make up their personality, and that these traits interact with each other to create a complex and dynamic psychological profile.

About Gordon Allport

Gordon Allport (1897-1967) was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of personality psychology. He is best known for his trait theory of personality, which emphasizes the unique qualities of individuals and the importance of understanding each person’s unique set of traits.

Allport’s theory proposes that there are three types of traits:

Cardinal traits: These are dominant traits that define an individual’s entire life, such as an all-consuming passion or a deep sense of purpose.For example, a person who is known for their intense passion for music, or their tireless pursuit of a certain goal, might be said to possess a cardinal trait. Cardinal traits are relatively rare and are often associated with great achievement or creativity.
Central traits: These are general characteristics that make up the core of an individual’s personality, such as honesty, kindness, or shyness. These traits are more common than cardinal traits and are evident in a wide range of situations. Examples of central traits might include honesty, kindness, or shyness. Central traits are relatively stable over time and tend to be consistent across different situations and contexts.
Secondary traits: These are traits that are more peripheral to an individual’s personality and may only be evident in certain situations or contexts, such as a fear of public speaking or a love of sports.For example, a person might be shy in social situations but outgoing and confident in academic or work settings. Secondary traits are more variable than central traits and may change over time depending on the individual’s experiences and environment.

Allport’s trait theory also emphasizes that traits are unique to individuals, and that each person possesses a unique combination of traits that make up their personality. Additionally, Allport argued that traits can be arranged along a continuum of development, meaning that some traits may become more or less prominent over time depending on the individual’s experiences and environment.

Carl Rogers Humanistic Theory of Personality

20 April 2023 Harshita Jain 24 Comments

Carl Rogers was an American psychologist who is known for his humanistic approach to psychology and his influential work on personality theory. Rogers believed that human beings have an innate tendency towards self-actualization, which is the process of realizing their full potential as individuals.

His personality theory emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, self-acceptance, and positive regard in the development of a healthy personality.

What is self actualization?

Self-actualization is a term used in psychology to describe the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s potential. According to the humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow, self-actualization is the highest level of human development and represents the fulfillment of all other lower-level needs such as physiological, safety, love, and esteem needs.

Self-actualization involves a deep understanding and acceptance of oneself, a sense of purpose and direction in life, and a desire to continually grow and develop as an individual. It involves the pursuit of personal goals that are meaningful, challenging, and aligned with one’s values and beliefs.

Self-actualized individuals are said to have a strong sense of inner peace, autonomy, and creativity. They are often characterized by a deep appreciation of life and a sense of gratitude for their experiences. Maslow believed that self-actualization is a rare and elusive state that only a small percentage of people ever achieve, but that it is an important goal to strive for in life.

Rogers’ theory of personality has three core concepts: self-concept, incongruence, and unconditional positive regard.

Self-concept: Self-concept refers to an individual’s perceptions and beliefs about themselves. It includes their thoughts and feelings about their abilities, personality traits, and values. Rogers believed that self-concept is developed through interactions with others, and that it is constantly evolving throughout a person’s life. He emphasized the importance of self-awareness in developing a positive self-concept.
Incongruence: Incongruence refers to the discrepancy between an individual’s self-concept and their actual experiences. When there is a significant gap between the two, it can lead to feelings of anxiety, guilt, and self-doubt. Rogers believed that people have a natural drive towards reducing this incongruence by adjusting their self-concept or their experiences.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Unconditional positive regard is the acceptance and support of another person without any conditions or judgement. Rogers believed that providing this type of support is crucial in the development of a healthy personality, as it allows individuals to feel valued and accepted for who they are, which in turn allows them to develop a positive self-concept.

Rogers believed that individuals have the potential to become fully functioning, meaning that they are able to reach their full potential. A fully functioning individual has a positive self-concept, is open to new experiences, is able to regulate their emotions effectively, and has a strong sense of personal identity. Rogers believed that everyone has the potential to become a fully functioning individual, but that this is often hindered by societal pressures and negative experiences.

Rogers’ theory also includes the idea of empathy and genuineness. Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person. Rogers believed that therapists should have empathy for their clients in order to create a safe and accepting environment for them to explore their thoughts and feelings. Genuineness refers to the therapist’s ability to be authentic and sincere in their interactions with their clients.

In summary, Carl Rogers’ humanistic theory of personality emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, positive regard, and personal growth in the development of a healthy personality. By understanding and accepting themselves, individuals can become more fully functioning and reach their full potential.

Tapas Mazumdar Committee

19 April 2023 Harshita Jain 5 Comments

The Tapas Mazumdar Committee was a committee formed in 1998 by the Government of India to review and recommend changes to the system of central government employees’ salaries and allowances.

The committee was chaired by economist Tapas Mazumdar, and its recommendations were intended to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the government’s workforce by aligning salaries and allowances with the demands and responsibilities of the job.

Functional Pay Structure: The committee recommended a new pay structure for central government employees based on the concept of “functional pay.” This structure would be determined by the level of responsibility and skill required for a particular job, rather than seniority or length of service.
Consolidation of Allowances: The committee recommended the consolidation of various allowances and the introduction of new ones to better reflect the demands and challenges of modern government work. This included allowances for transportation, house rent, and children’s education.
Performance-Based Incentives: The committee also recommended the introduction of performance-based incentives to encourage and reward excellence in government service. This included bonuses for exceptional performance and promotions based on merit.
Pension and Retirement Benefits: The committee recommended changes to the pension and retirement benefits of central government employees to ensure that they were fair and adequate. This included increasing the amount of pension paid to retired employees and introducing a contributory pension scheme for new employees.
Special Allowances: The committee recommended the introduction of special allowances for employees working in difficult or remote areas, as well as for those performing hazardous duties.
Revision of Pay Scales: The committee recommended that pay scales be revised periodically to reflect changes in market conditions and cost of living.
Improved Grievance Redressal: The committee recommended the establishment of a grievance redressal mechanism to address complaints and issues faced by government employees.
Transparency and Accountability: The committee recommended greater transparency and accountability in the process of determining salaries and allowances for government employees. This included the establishment of an independent pay commission to periodically review and recommend changes to the system.

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School Budgeting and Accounting Procedure

19 April 2023 Harshita Jain 4 Comments

The school budgeting and accounting procedure is crucial for ensuring the financial health and stability of a school district or educational institution.

These procedures typically involve several key steps:

Budget Preparation: The first step in the school budgeting and accounting process is to prepare a budget for the upcoming fiscal year. This typically involves reviewing the previous year’s budget and financial statements, analyzing enrollment and staffing data, and making projections for revenue and expenditures.
Board Approval: Once the budget has been prepared, it must be presented to the school board for approval. The board will review the budget and may make adjustments or request additional information before approving the final version.
Revenue Management: Once the budget is approved, the school must manage its revenue sources, including state and federal funding, local property taxes, and other sources of income. This may involve tracking revenue streams, projecting cash flow, and managing investments.
Expenditure Management: The school must also manage its expenditures, which may include salaries and benefits for staff, materials and supplies, utilities, and other expenses. This may involve creating a system for tracking expenses, implementing cost-saving measures, and prioritizing expenditures based on the budget.
Financial Reporting: Throughout the year, the school must maintain accurate financial records and prepare regular reports to keep stakeholders informed about the school’s financial health. This may involve preparing monthly or quarterly financial statements, submitting reports to state and federal agencies, and providing updates to the school board and other stakeholders.
Audit and Compliance: Finally, the school must comply with applicable laws and regulations and undergo regular audits to ensure the accuracy and integrity of its financial records. This may involve working with external auditors, implementing internal controls, and addressing any findings or recommendations from auditors.

Overall, the school budgeting and accounting procedures are critical for ensuring that the school district or educational institution can operate effectively and efficiently while maintaining financial stability and accountability.

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School Budgetary and Accounting Procedure

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