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Approaches of Assessment, Assessment for Learning, B. Ed., M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Unit 6 Research in Education

Meaning and Types of Reliability

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Reliability is an important criterion of a good test/tool. Reliability refers to consistency. A test that shows a consistent result in its frequent uses in different
situations and places is called the reliability of the test. The other synonyms that can be used for getting the reliability of the test are dependability, stability, consistency, predictability, accuracy, etc. It implies that the reliable test always provides a stable, dependable, accurate, and consistent result in its subsequent uses.

Meaning and Types of Reliability

Test-retest reliability:

  • Test-retest reliability means the same test is administered twice on the same group of samples within a given time interval and correlation is calculated between the two sets of scores (first and second administration). If the coefficient of correlation is positive and high, it is considered that the test is reliable. Let us discuss the procedures of using test-retest reliability.

Limitations of using the method:

  • As the same test is administered twice on the same group, there will be the threat of carry-over effect, which means, during the second administration, the candidates may remember many items from the first administration.
  • The scoring of the second administration is usually high than the first one.
  • Maintaining a gap of time between the test and re-test is also again one of the important aspects of determining the exact value of reliability. If the time gap is very less, then the carry-over effect will be high and on the other side, if the time gap is very high, the maturity effects of the candidates may hamper the test results.
  • This method is not free from errors. Memory, carryover, practice, and maturity effects are high in this technique.

Parallel-Form Reliability :

Because of the error factors in the test-retest method, the parallel-form method is one of the alternate methods of the test-retest method and it can minimize many of the errors that occurred in the earlier method. In the parallel form method, two parallel tests are prepared keeping in consideration equivalence in all aspects such as similarities in content, objectives, types, and number of items, the time allowed in both the tests, level of difficulty, discrimination value, conditions of use, etc.

Limitation of parallel form method :

The parallel form method is also not completely free from errors. There are possibilities of making errors in this method also:

  • Practice and carry-over effect is not totally minimized, as both the tests are equivalent in nature in many respects except only the items are different and a time interval of 15 days to 6 months is given for testing the second form of the test. During this period, there is a chance that 29 Criteria of a Good Tool the students may practice similar content and items, and hence chances for getting better scores in the second test are generally more.
  • Preparing two parallel forms of tests is also a complex task.
  • This method is comparatively time taking to get reliability.

Internal consistency reliability :

Internal consistency reliability indicates the homogeneity of the test. If all the items of the test measure the same function or trait, the test is said to be a homogeneous one and its internal consistency reliability would be pretty high. The most common method of estimating internal consistency reliability is the

(a) Split-half method
(b) Rational equivalence method.

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Educational Policy, Economics and Planning, M. Ed.

Concept and Need of Education Planning

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Education planning at the secondary level is the process of developing and implementing a curriculum that will help students acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities they need to be successful in college, career, and life.

Need for Education at the secondary level :

The need for education planning at the secondary level is clear. In today’s global economy, it is more important than ever for students to have the skills and knowledge they need to compete for jobs. And, with the ever-changing nature of work, it is also important for students to be able to learn new skills and adapt to new situations.

Education planning at the secondary level can help students meet these challenges by providing them with a well-rounded education that includes a focus on academic subjects, as well as on career and life skills. By planning carefully, educators can ensure that students have the opportunity to develop their full potential and to reach their goals.

Here are some of the benefits of education planning at the secondary level:

  • Increased student achievement: When students have a clear path to success, they are more likely to achieve their goals. Education planning can help students by providing them with a roadmap for their education.
  • Reduced dropout rates: Students who are engaged in their education and who have a clear sense of purpose are less likely to drop out. Education planning can help students by providing them with opportunities to explore their interests and to develop their skills.
  • Improved college and career readiness: Education planning can help students by providing them with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in college and in the workforce.
  • Increased equity: Education planning can help to ensure that all students have access to a high-quality education, regardless of their background.
  • Preparation for post-secondary education and the workforce: Education planning ensures that students are prepared for the demands of post-secondary education and the workforce. A well-designed curriculum that provides a rigorous and relevant education, along with career exploration opportunities, can help students develop the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in college, vocational training, or the job market.
  • Personalized learning: Education planning provides a framework for personalized learning that is tailored to the individual needs and interests of students. This can help students stay engaged in their education and achieve their academic goals.
  • Equity and access: Education planning can promote equity and access to education by providing resources and support to students who may face barriers to academic success, such as those from low-income families or with disabilities. This can help to close achievement gaps and ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to succeed.
  • Strategic resource allocation: Education planning allows schools and districts to allocate resources effectively and efficiently. By identifying areas where additional resources are needed, education planning can help schools make strategic investments that improve student outcomes and support the goals of the school community.
  • Continuous improvement: Education planning is an ongoing process that involves continuous improvement and evaluation. This ensures that schools are adapting to changing needs and priorities, and that the education provided to students is of the highest quality.
  • Lifelong learning: Education planning can help students develop a lifelong love of learning and a desire for ongoing personal and professional growth. By providing a well-rounded education that supports critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving, education planning can help students succeed in all areas of life.

There are many different ways to approach education planning at the secondary level. Some schools have a centralized planning process, while others allow individual teachers or departments to develop their own plans. The best approach will vary depending on the specific needs of the school or district.

However, there are some key elements that should be included in any education plan at the secondary level. These elements include:

  • A clear vision for what students should know and be able to do by the end of the secondary level.
  • A well-defined curriculum that includes a balance of academic subjects, career and life skills, and opportunities for students to explore their interests.
  • A system for assessing student progress and providing feedback.
  • A process for ensuring that all students have access to a high-quality education, regardless of their background.

Education planning at the secondary level is an essential part of ensuring that all students have the opportunity to succeed. By taking the time to plan carefully, educators can help students develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities they need to be successful in college, career, and life.

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Concept and Need of Education Planning
Concept and Need of Education Planning

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Advance Curriculum theory ( Secondary level), M. Ed.

Perspectives to Curriculum Transaction

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The perspective of curriculum transaction refers to the process of delivering a curriculum to learners. This process can be viewed from different theoretical frameworks, including behaviouristic, cognitive, and constructivist perspectives.

Curriculum transaction is the process of delivering the curriculum to students. It is a complex process that involves the teacher, the students, the content, and the learning environment.

There are many different perspectives on curriculum transaction. Some people believe that the teacher is the most important factor in the process. They argue that the teacher’s skills, knowledge, and enthusiasm can have a major impact on student learning. Others believe that the students are the most important factor. They argue that students learn best when they are actively engaged in the learning process and when they are motivated to learn. Still, others believe that the content is the most important factor. They argue that students need to be exposed to a variety of content in order to develop their minds and to prepare for college and careers.

The best way to think about curriculum transaction is as a partnership between the teacher, the students, and the content. Each of these factors plays an important role in the learning process. When all of these factors are working together, students are more likely to learn effectively.

Behaviouristic Perspective:

The behaviouristic perspective focuses on observable behavior and reinforces learning through rewards and punishments. In this perspective, the curriculum is delivered through repetitive drills and rote memorization to achieve mastery of specific skills and knowledge. The teacher is viewed as the authority figure, and learning is primarily based on conditioning and external reinforcement.

Cognitive Perspective :

The cognitive perspective focuses on how learners process information, emphasizing the role of mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning. In this perspective, the curriculum is delivered through active engagement in problem-solving, critical thinking, and inquiry-based activities. The teacher is viewed as a facilitator of learning, helping learners to construct their knowledge through interaction with the environment.

Constructivist Perspective :

The constructivist perspective focuses on the active construction of knowledge by the learner, emphasizing the role of prior knowledge and experience in shaping new understanding. In this perspective, the curriculum is delivered through authentic and meaningful learning experiences that promote inquiry, reflection, and collaboration. The teacher is viewed as a guide, helping learners to construct their understanding of the world by engaging in real-world problem-solving and authentic experiences.

A synthesis of these perspectives can lead to a more holistic approach to curriculum transaction, where the curriculum is designed to accommodate different learning styles and preferences. Such an approach may incorporate both traditional teaching methods and newer, more progressive approaches that emphasize learner-centered instruction. Ultimately, the effectiveness of any approach to curriculum transaction depends on the needs and goals of learners and the context in which learning occurs.

Also Read: Approaches to Curriculum Evaluation

Perspectives to curriculum transaction and their synthesis

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Advance Curriculum theory ( Secondary level), M. Ed.

Congruence-Contingency Model of curriculum evaluation

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The congruence-contingency model of curriculum evaluation is a qualitative approach to evaluation that was developed by Robert Stake in 1975. The model is based on the assumption that curriculum evaluation should be focused on determining the extent to which the curriculum is congruent with the needs of the students and the context in which it is being implemented.

According to him, formal procedures will help increase the objectivity in evaluation. They aim at furnishing data, we can make descriptions and judgements of the curriculum being evaluated. Stake argues that for evaluation purposes, we should not rely only on the statements of objectives aims. We should allow all those ‘affected’ by the curriculum to extensively participate in judging the curriculum.

He further maintains that the data can be collected under the following three bodies of information.

I. Antecedent: This is any condition that exists prior to teaching and learning that may influence the outcomes. For example, prior knowledge, aptitudes, psychological profiles of students, etc., years of experience of teachers, teacher- behaviour, etc.

2. Transactions: Learning transactions that occur between and among teachers and students, students and students and among students and resource people.

3. .Outcomes: These are the consequences of education – immediate and long-range, cognitive and conative, personal and community-wide. For example, students’ performance, achievements, etc. Stake, however, lays stress on even such outcomes as the impact of a new programme on teachers’ perception of their competence.

The term contingencies here refer to the relationships among the variables in three categories: antecedents, transactions and outcomes. Once the evaluator collects views on a curriculum from various sources like students, teachers, support staff, etc., he puts them on a matrix to identify the congruencies and contingencies among them. The model clearly shows that it provides an organizational framework that points to the data to be considered and compares what is planned and what has occurred.

Here are some of the advantages of the congruence-contingency model:

  • It is a qualitative approach, which means that it takes into account the subjective experiences of the students and the teachers.
  • It is a comprehensive approach, which means that it considers all aspects of the curriculum.
  • It is a flexible approach, which means that it can be adapted to different types of curriculums and different contexts.

Here are some of the disadvantages of the congruence-contingency model:

  • It can be time-consuming and expensive to implement.
  • It requires a high level of expertise to use effectively.
  • It can be difficult to get all stakeholders involved in the evaluation process.

Overall, the congruence-contingency model is a valuable tool for educators who want to ensure that their curriculum is meeting the needs of their students. It is a comprehensive and flexible approach that can be used to evaluate all aspects of the curriculum.

Also Read: Approaches of Curriculum Evaluation

Congruence-Contingency Model of curriculum evaluation
Congruence-Contingency Model of curriculum evaluation

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Advance Curriculum theory ( Secondary level), M. Ed.

Metfessel-Michael Model of Curriculum Evaluation

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The Metfessel-Michael Model of curriculum evaluation is a goal-oriented model that was developed in 1967 by Norman Metfessel and James Michael. The model is based on the assumption that curriculum evaluation should be focused on determining whether or not the curriculum is achieving its goals. It is a variation of the Tylerian model.

The Metfessel-Michael Model consists of these steps(major 8 steps):

  1. Involve the participants and Identify the goals of the curriculum or formulate the objectives.
  2. Translate the goals into specific, measurable objectives and content and experience.
  3. Develop assessment instruments and methodology to carry out the evaluation.
  4. Carry out observations and collect data on student achievement of the objectives.
  5. Analyze the data and compare student achievement to the objectives.
  6. Interpret the data to make judgments about the extent to which the curriculum is achieving its goals.
  7. Use the results of the evaluation to make decisions about the curriculum and make recommendations.
  8. Repeat the evaluation process on a regular basis.

The Metfessel-Michael Model is a comprehensive and systematic approach to curriculum evaluation. It is a useful tool for educators who want to ensure that their curriculum is meeting the needs of their students.

Here are some of the advantages of the Metfessel-Michael Model:

  • It is a goal-oriented model, which means that it is focused on determining whether or not the curriculum is achieving its goals.
  • It is a systematic approach, which means that it follows a step-by-step process.
  • It is comprehensive, which means that it considers all aspects of the curriculum.
  • It is flexible, which means that it can be adapted to different types of curriculums.

Here are some of the disadvantages of the Metfessel-Michael Model:

  • It can be time-consuming and expensive to implement.
  • It requires a high level of expertise to use effectively.
  • It can be difficult to get all stakeholders involved in the evaluation process.

Overall, the Metfessel-Michael Model is a valuable tool for educators who want to ensure that their curriculum is meeting the needs of their students. It is a comprehensive and systematic approach that can be used to evaluate all aspects of the curriculum.

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Metfessel-Michael Model of Curriculum Evaluation

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