Category Archives: Psychology of Learning and Development

M. Ed., NET, Paper 2, Psychology of Learning and Development, Unit 3 Learner and Learning Process

Factors Affecting Intelligence

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Intelligence is a complex construct that is influenced by a variety of factors. It is always said that Nature and nurture both affect intelligence.

Nature refers to heredity and nurture to
environment. At present, researchers agree that individual differences in intelligence are clearly the result of the interplay between genetic factors and the environmental conditions

Here are some of the most important factors that can impact intelligence:

  1. Genetics: Intelligence is partially influenced by genetic factors. Certain genes may be associated with higher levels of cognitive ability and thus higher intelligence.
  2. Environmental factors: Environmental factors such as nutrition, stress, and exposure to toxins can impact the development of the brain and therefore affect intelligence. There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, quality schooling, and good family background increase intelligence.
  3. Brain development: The development of the brain, including the growth of brain structures and the formation of neural connections, can significantly impact intelligence.
  4. Health and well-being: Good health and overall well-being, including proper nutrition, exercise, and sufficient sleep, can contribute to higher levels of intelligence. A healthy diet will lead to better mental health and intelligence.
  5. Learning experiences: Formal education and informal exposure to new information and ideas, can have a significant impact on intelligence. With new learning and better ideas, the person becomes more intelligent.
  6. Emotional and social intelligence: Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and regulate emotions is important. Social intelligence, the ability to understand and navigate social relationships, is also an important component of overall intelligence.
Also Read: Assessment Techniques of Personality

Intelligence is not determined solely by any one of these factors, but by the interplay and combination of all of these factors. Additionally, intelligence is a dynamic construct that can change and develop over time.

Factors affecting Intelligence
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M. Ed., Psychology of Learning and Development

Brain Storming Method

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Brainstorming is a creative problem-solving technique that involves producing a large number of ideas in a short period of time. The goal of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible.

Osborn’s (1957) brainstorming is a group approach to encourage
creativity. It is a technique where people in a group setting are required to come up with as many ideas as possible. People or individuals give out whatever comes to their mind on a particular topic/issue without much thinking about it or postponing it or judging it. There are four basic guidelines for the group:

Features of Brain Storming Method :

(1) The greater the number of ideas, the better it is.


(2) People can combine two or more ideas that are proposed by others.

(3)The brainstorming session maintains the encouragement of each other, complete friendliness, and a relaxed mind.

(4) Group Involvement helps in the exchange of ideas and building a better communication system.

(5) People are not allowed to judge or criticize each other ideas so it is a good way to give ideas without being criticized.

(6) Participants are encouraged to think outside the box, be imaginative, and build on each other’s ideas.

Also Read: Assessment Techniques of Personality

These are some of the main features of brainstorming, which are effective in promoting creativity, generating new and innovative ideas, and solving problems in a group setting.

Brain Storming Method of Creativity
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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, M. Ed., Psychology of Learning and Development, Theories of Learning

Behavioristic Theory of Learning

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The theory was first developed by B.F. Skinner in the mid-20th century and has been influential in shaping our understanding of learning and behavior. Behaviorism is a psychological theory that views behavior as a response to stimuli in the environment. It is based on the idea that all behavior can be explained by the relationship between stimuli and responses, and that learning occurs through the formation of associations between stimuli and responses.

It emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli and rewards/punishments in shaping and modifying behavior. Key figures in behaviorism include Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and John Watson. This theory has been applied in fields such as education , and has also influenced the development of behavior modification techniques and therapies.

Key features of behaviorism include:

  1. Emphasis on observable behavior: Behaviorism only concerns itself with observable, measurable behavior and disregards internal processes such as thoughts and feelings.
  2. Conditioning: Behaviorism follows that learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning, where behavior is shaped through reinforcement or punishment.
  3. Stimulus-Response Relationships: Behavior is seen as a response to stimuli in the environment, and the goal of behaviorism is to identify the specific relationships between stimuli and responses.
  4. Use of Reinforcement and Punishment: Reinforcement is used to increase the frequency of desired behaviors, while punishment is used to decrease the frequency of undesired behaviors.
  5. Focus on the Environment: Behaviorism places a strong emphasis on the role of the environment in shaping behavior, and views behavior as largely determined by environmental factors.
  6. Scientific approach: Behaviorism uses a scientific, empirical approach to understanding behavior, relying on systematic observation and experimentation to develop theories and principles.
  7. Limited focus: Behaviorism has a limited focus on human behavior, neglecting the internal mental processes that may play a role in shaping behavior.

Also Read : Sigmund Freud Theory

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B. Ed., Childhood and Growing Up, M. Ed., Psychology of Learning and Development

Socio Cultural Theory of Vygotsky

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Socio-cultural theory of Vygotsky emphasizes the important role that culture and social interactions play in the development of cognitive abilities. According to Vygotsky, human development occurs through a process of internalizing cultural tools and practices, such as language and symbols, which allow individuals to think and reason at higher levels. This process of internalization occurs through social interactions with more knowledgeable individuals and is facilitated through the use of mediational tools, such as language, which serve to bridge the gap between an individual’s current level of development and their potential for future development. In this way, Vygotsky’s theory highlights the interdependence of social and individual development, and the importance of cultural and historical context in shaping cognitive abilities.

Features of Socio Cultural theory of Vygotsky

  1. Zone of Proximal Development: The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help from others. This concept highlights the importance of social interaction and guidance in cognitive development.
  2. Scaffolding: The support and guidance provided by more knowledgeable individuals during the learning process, which helps a child progress to the next level of development.
  3. Internalization: The process of taking external cultural tools, such as language, and making them one’s own, thereby transforming them into internal mental processes.
  4. Social Interaction: Vygotsky believed that social interaction is crucial for cognitive development, as individuals learn through their interactions with others.
  5. Cultural Historical Context: Vygotsky emphasized that cognitive development is shaped by the historical and cultural context in which individuals live.
  6. Mediation: The use of cultural tools and practices, such as language, symbols, and artifacts, to mediate and transform cognitive processes.
  7. Collaborative Learning: Vygotsky saw learning as a collaborative process, in which individuals work together to negotiate meaning and construct knowledge.

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Socio Cultural theory of Vygotsky

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Psychology of Learning and Development

Gagne’ Hierarchical Theory of Learning

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Gagne’s Hierarchical theory of learning is a psychological theory of learning and instruction that was proposed by Robert Gagne in the mid-20th century. It suggests that learning occurs in a series of stages or steps, with each step building on the previous one. The theory proposes that there are five main stages in the learning process:

  1. Stimulus: The learner is presented with a stimulus that captures their attention.
  2. Response: The learner responds to the stimulus in some way.
  3. Feedback: The learner receives feedback on their response, which can either reinforce or modify their behavior.
  4. Retention: The learner retains the information or skill learned, either in their short-term or long-term memory.
  5. Transfer: The learner applies what they have learned in new and different situations.

Gagne’s Hierarchical theory of learning also recognizes the importance of specific mental processes, such as perception, discrimination, and recall, in the learning process. The theory suggests that these processes can be improved through instructional methods such as verbal information, demonstration, and practice.

Overall, Gagne’s Hierarchical theory of learning is a comprehensive theory that emphasizes the importance of the instructional process in facilitating learning and improving performance. The theory has been widely used in the field of education and continues to influence the design of instructional materials and programs.

Features of Gagne’s Hierarchical theory of learning :

  1. Hierarchical organization: Gagne’s theory is organized in a hierarchical manner, with each level building upon the previous one. The nine events of instruction form a progression that begins with gaining the learner’s attention and ends with evaluating learning outcomes.
  2. Matching instruction to outcome: The theory stresses the importance of matching instructional strategies to the type of learning outcome desired. Different instructional strategies are used for cognitive, motor, or verbal skills.
  3. Prior learning experiences: The theory acknowledges that prior learning experiences can influence the effectiveness of instruction.
  4. Transfer of learning: Gagne’s theory recognizes that learners can apply knowledge and skills learned in one situation to new and different situations.
  5. Motivation and attitudes: The theory takes into account the role of motivation and attitudes in the learning process.
  6. Feedback: Gagne’s theory emphasizes the importance of providing feedback to learners to support ongoing improvement and mastery of the material.
  7. Clear and effective instructional design: The theory calls for instructional design that is clear, well-organized, and effective in meeting the learner’s needs.
Gagne Hierarchical Theory of Learning

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